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| Anatomy of the adult fly |
With the exception of the central nervous system, most of the structures of the adult fly develop during the larval period and take their final form during eclosion, the act of emerging from the pupal case.
The familiar external structures of the adult fly develop from imaginal discs, groups of cells that invaginate from the embryonic ectoderm, and from histoblasts and imaginal rings, cells that are set aside during embryonic development and retain their ability to divide through the larval stages. The clypeus and the labrum, two anterior head structures develop from the clypeo-labral disc. The main part of the head, including the frons, the antenna, the eyes and the maxillary palps develop from the eye-antennal disc. The proboscis develops from the labial disc. The major part of the thorax, including the wing, notum, scutellum, and pleura are formed from the wing imaginal disc, the prothorax, supporting the first leg is derived from the prothoracic disc, the legs are formed from the leg discs and the haltere is formed from the haltere disc. The abdomen is formed from nests of histoblasts that are formed as part of the embryonic epidermis.
Of the internal organs, the gut, salivary glands and trachea develop from imaginal rings that are formed during embryonic development. The larval Malpighian tubules persist into adulthood. The adult musculature develops from adepithelial cells that are attached to the imaginal discs. The gonads, ovaries and testes, develop from three sources: in females only, a nest of mesodermal follicle precursor cells, and in both males and females, genital discs and pole cells (the germ line stem cells). In the female, genital discs give rise to oviducts and uterus, and the accessory structures consisting of seminal recepticle, spermathecae, and accessory glands. In the male, the genital discs give rise to seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct and sperm pump, penis apparatus and an accessory structure, the paragonia (Hartenstein, 1993).
The metamorphosis of the fly begins at the end of the third instar larval stage, approximately 120 hours after the beginning of embryonic development. Studies with other insects indicates that release of Ecdysone from the ring gland is triggered by the prothoracicotropic hormone, produced by four dorsolateral
neurosecretory cells of brain. For more information see the section entitled "Bombyx prothoracicotropic hormone" in the Ecdysone receptor site. Genes regulating the molting hierarchy are listed in their own site. Larval salivary gland chromosomes undergo endoreduplication and become polyploid. For information about this process, see Polytene chromosomes, endoreduplication and puffing.
Metamorphosis in Drosophila may be divided into two stages: a 12 hour prepupal period marked by pupariation (the onset of the larval-pupal transition), and a subsequent pupal period lasting 84 hours.
Pupariation is marked by a sudden release of ecdysteroid hormone secreted from the ring gland. The larval cuticle becomes the puparium or pupal case that surrounds the metamorphosing fly until it ecloses. Apolysis is the term for the retraction of the epidermis from the cuticle of the third instar larva. Once apolysis is complete, a characteristic gas bubble forms in the prepupa abdomen. At this stage the developing pupa is able to float in water.
Next the eversion of the head takes place, approximately 12 hours from the start of pupariation. The process itself is sudden, lasting about 10 minutes and orchestrated by contractions of abdominal muscles. Head eversion marks the beginning of the true pupal state. During pupariation the imaginal discs undergo eversion to form the basic shape of the adult head, thorax and abdomen. Wing, leg and haltere discs fuse to form the thorax. The eye antennal complex fuses to form a single head capsule and the head and thorax fuse with the abdomen.
During the early pupal period, final cell divisions in the wings and legs take place. Wing and leg discs inflate by the same process that drives head eversion. The next several days are marked by all the cell and tissue changes that have to take place in the development of adult structures. For example, bristles and sockets develop from precursor cells, directed by proneural genes and regulated by neurogenic genes. The layered adult cuticle develops in cycles of cuticle deposition; eye pigmentation develops and neural maturation takes place.
Early in this period a pupal to adult ecdysis takes place; for most of the pupal period the animal in the puparium is technically a pharate (cloaked or covered) adult. At the end of the pupal period eclosion (hatching) takes place, driven by an eclosion hormone (Fristrom, 1993 and Ashburner, 1989).
An understanding of the molecular basis of the endocrine control of insect metamorphosis has been hampered by the profound differences in the responses of the Lepidoptera and the Diptera to juvenile hormone (JH). In the presence of JH, there is no change in form; in the absence of JH, ecdysone causes the switching in gene expression necessary for metamorphosis, first to the pupa, then to the adult. JH therefore prevents this switching action of ecdysone and thus maintains the 'status quo' during a molt. In the Coleoptera and in Lepidoptera such as the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, where the epidermis sequentially makes several larval cuticles, the pupal cuticle and finally the adult cuticle, JH prevents each of the metamorphic transitions. By contrast, in Drosophila and the other higher flies, the pupal epidermis, except for the abdomen, is derived from imaginal discs, and exogenous JH does not prevent the larval-pupal transformation, even when given throughout larval life. Nor does JH have any effect on the subsequent external adult differentiation of the head and thorax, although JH disrupts metamorphosis of the nervous and muscular systems when given during the prepupal period. However, JH application during the final larval instar or during the prepupal period prevents the normal adult differentiation of the abdomen, whose cells arise from proliferation of the histoblasts during the prepupal period (Zhou, 2002 and references therein).
In both Manduca and Drosophila, the broad (br) gene is expressed in the epidermis during the formation of the pupa, but not during adult differentiation. Misexpression of Br-Z1 during either a larval or an adult molt of Drosophila suppresses stage-specific cuticle genes and activates pupal cuticle genes, showing that br is a major specifier of the pupal stage. Treatment with a JH mimic at the onset of the adult molt causes br re-expression and the formation of a second pupal cuticle in Manduca, but only in the abdomen of Drosophila. Expression of the Br isoforms during adult development of Drosophila suppresses bristle and hair formation when induced early or redirects cuticle production toward the pupal program when induced late. Expression of Br-Z1 at both of these times mimics the effect of JH application but, unlike JH, it causes production of a new pupal cuticle on the head and thorax as well as on the abdomen. Consequently, the 'status quo' action of JH on the pupal-adult transformation is mediated by the JH-induced re-expression of Br (Zhou, 2002).
Br has long been known to be required for the onset of metamorphosis of Drosophila because the nonpupariating (npr) alleles lack all Br proteins and remain as final instar larvae. In both Drosophila and Manduca, Br transcripts and proteins are expressed prominently during the larval-pupal transformation with different isoforms showing different temporal and tissue specificities through this period and causing either activation or suppression of specific genes. For example, in the Drosophila salivary gland, the induction of Sgs-4 and L71 and the suppression of Pig-1 during the mid and late third instar require the Z1 isoform, while the later suppression of Sgs-4 at puparium formation is due to the downregulation of another transcription factor Forkhead (Fkh) by the Z3 isoform. By contrast, the Z3 isoform activates the expression of Fbp1 in larval fat bodies during the second half of the third instar, while Z2 may play a role in repressing its premature expression. Br proteins also may play a role in the regulation of chromatin structure, since they are found in over 300 sites on the salivary gland chromosomes including sites in the interband regions and in the heterochromatin (Zhou, 2002).
Br-Z1 is the predominant isoform during the time of pupal cuticle formation in Drosophila. Whenever Br-Z1 is expressed during an ecdysone-induced molt, it can direct the epidermis into a program of pupal cuticle production. For example, the molt to the third larval instar in Drosophila begins with the rise of the ecdysteroid that peaks about 12 hours after ecdysis to the second instar. Shortly thereafter, mRNAs for larval cuticular proteins are upregulated. Expression of Br-Z1 during this time suppresses the larval cuticle gene Lcp65A-b and prematurely activates the pupal cuticle gene Edg78E. The ability of Br to be a pupal specifier is also evident during an adult molt. This molt begins about 24 hour APF with the rise of the ecdysteroid titer, and adult procuticle deposition begins about 53 hours APF during the decline of the ecdysteroid titer. Br-Z1 is most effective in activating pupal cuticle genes and suppressing an adult cuticle gene when expressed just before the normal onset of adult procuticle gene expression. This temporal restriction suggests that although Br selects which cuticle genes will be expressed, it can only do so within the confines of an ecdysone-induced program that determines the timing of cuticle gene expression at every molt. Therefore, in either a larval or an adult molt, the expression of Br-Z1 is sufficient to redirect that molt towards the pupal program (Zhou, 2002).
Adult differentiation of the epidermis can be divided into two developmental phases: cellular morphogenesis followed by cuticle deposition. Morphogenesis of the epidermis begins with the formation and outgrowth of the bristles (macrochaetes, microchaetes) between 30 and 45 hours APF, first in the head and thorax, then in the abdomen. Trichomes (hairs) are then formed by most of the general epidermal cells, beginning on the wing at 33 hours APF and on the abdomen about 48 hours APF. The general epidermis deposits three cuticular layers: cuticulin, epicuticle and procuticle. The bristle and hair shafts lack the procuticle layer. Cuticulin formation begins in patches on the wings and legs at 35-36 hours and on the abdomen at 40-45 hours APF, followed by synthesis of a continuous epicuticle once morphogenesis is complete. Adult procuticle synthesis occurs primarily between 53 and 90 hours APF. The expression of the adult cuticle gene Acp65A is restricted to flexible cuticle regions of the abdomen, the wing hinges, leg joints and the ptilinum and begins about 55-60 hours APF (Zhou, 2002).
Br disappears before the onset of adult differentiation in both Manduca and Drosophila. This disappearance is crucial for normal adult development since the misexpression of Br in Drosophila can affect both adult morphogenesis and adult cuticle production. When expressed between 30 and 40 hours APF, Br causes truncation of the bristles with early times affecting the bristles of the head and thorax and slightly later times affecting those of the abdomen. This timing corresponds to the onset of bristle outgrowth in the different regions. Suppression of bristle outgrowth occurs with misexpression of each of the Br isoforms, although the Z1 isoform has the strongest effects because the truncation is seen with expression of only two copies as well as with four copies of Br-Z1. Bristle outgrowth occurs by extension of the longitudinal actin microfilament arrays that surround the microtubular core. These actin filaments are bundled together, then crosslinked to support the elongating bristles, using sequentially the product of the forked gene and fascin. Although an occasional forked bristle is seen after misexpression of Br, the primary effect is truncation similar to that seen after exposure to inhibitors of microfilament elongation, indicating Br may be able to interfere with this process, either directly or indirectly (Zhou, 2002).
Trichome production in the abdominal epidermis is suppressed by Br-Z1 expression between 36 and 39 hours APF. Since nearly every epidermal cell normally produces a trichome, this result shows that early Br expression also suppresses morphogenesis of the general epidermis. In this case, the effective time is about 10-12 hours before abdominal trichome production. By 42 hours APF bristle and trichome morphogenesis is no longer affected by expression of Br. Between this time and 60 hours APF, the effects are primarily on the types of cuticle proteins produced. Br-Z1 is most effective in suppressing adult cuticle gene expression and causing re-induction of pupal cuticle gene expression with the resultant formation of a thin, transparent, pupal-like cuticle by the general epidermis. None of the other isoforms have such a dramatic effect on the external appearance of the cuticle, although Br-Z2 causes re-expression of the two pupal cuticle genes, and Br-Z3 causes re-expression of one pupal cuticle gene and suppression of the adult cuticle gene studied, indicating that they normally play a role in production of pupal cuticle. Cuticle is composed of many proteins, so a predominance of adult cuticle proteins could maintain the cuticular morphology despite the presence of some pupal cuticle proteins or the absence of specific adult cuticle proteins. Further study is required to resolve this issue (Zhou, 2002).
Although bristle morphogenesis is unaffected by expression of Br during the onset of cuticle formation, bristle pigmentation and sclerotization are subsequently inhibited. Whether this suppression is due to the type of epicuticle deposited or to an inhibitory action of Br on the melanization and sclerotization pathways themselves is unclear. In the case of Br-Z1, this effect is most pronounced when expression is either between 43 and 48 hours APF or later during 54-60 hours APF. Although the pupal cuticle genes used in this study all encode proteins found in the pupal exocuticle (the outer procuticle), Br-Z1 probably also directs pupal epicuticle production. If so, the earlier expression of Br-Z1 may be suppressing the deposition of the proenzymes necessary for tanning and melanization that are normally associated with adult cuticle. Such a suppression would not be unexpected, since normal pupal cuticle does not tan or melanize. These proenzymes are often laid down very early in formation of the new cuticle. Br-Z3 or Br-Z4 also suppresses bristle pigmentation but only when expressed late between 52 and 60 hours APF. This effect of later expression of any of these three isoforms is probably due to an interference with the production or deposition of the substrates for these enzymes, which normally appear in the cuticle shortly before the proenzymes are activated. However, an effect on the pigmentation process itself that occurs later cannot be ruled out (Zhou, 2002).
These different effects of Br misexpression depending on its timing indicate that Br and/or the unknown proteins whose expression Br regulates must be present to direct the pupal program. Once they disappear, the cells can revert back to the expression of the adult program. In these experiments, Br transcripts disappear by 6 hours after the heat shock, but the proteins are present until at least 9 hours. Thus, in order to obtain a second pupal cuticle that lacks bristles and trichomes, one must express Br-Z1 during both the initiation of bristle outgrowth and the onset of procuticle formation (Zhou, 2002).
An important finding of these studies is the fact that the presence of Br-Z1 at the time of cuticle formation is sufficient to redirect the program of cuticle gene expression into a pupal mode in cells that have completed their adult morphogenesis. This is most clearly seen after expression of Br at 48 or 52 hours APF. The cells of the general abdominal epidermis make the adult hairs but then deposit procuticle that includes pupal cuticle proteins. Thus, cells already committed to and expressing aspects of adult differentiation are plastic and can be caused to re-express pupal products when given the proper transcription factor. Clearly the suppression of br through the duration of adult development is essential for the normal completion of metamorphosis (Zhou, 2002).
JH has long been known to prevent metamorphosis without interfering with the molting process itself. In both Manduca and Drosophila abdomens, JH causes the formation of a second pupal cuticle only when given before the onset of the adult molt. These studies have revealed that this re-expression of the pupal program in both species is associated with the re-induction and maintenance of Br expression during the molt. This renewed Br expression appears to be sufficient to mediate the 'status quo' action of JH, since Br can both activate pupal genes and suppress adult genes. Thus, during the crucial period of adult commitment, ecdysone in the absence of JH must switch off Br so that the adult-specific program of differentiation can occur (Zhou, 2002).
In Drosophila the JH-sensitive period of the abdomen is during the prepupal period with the highest sensitivity being at the time of pupariation and loss of sensitivity after head eversion at 12 hours APF. During this time the histoblasts are proliferating rapidly. After this JH-sensitive period is over, beginning about 15 hours APF, these imaginal cells spread over the pupal abdomen and replace most of the larval cells by about 28 hours APF. Throughout this period, both types of cells express Br. JH given at pupariation has no apparent effect on the proliferation or spreading of these cells or on their replacement of the larval epidermis. Nor does it interfere with their normal Br expression during this period. Its effect is only to cause renewed and sustained expression of Br in the imaginal cells during the adult molt up through 72 hours APF (Zhou, 2002).
JH at pupariation has no apparent effect on the adult development of the Drosophila head and thoracic structures that are derived from the imaginal discs. This study shows that the refractoriness of the head and thorax to the JH treatment is due to the inability of JH to cause Br re-expression in these regions during the adult molt. Yet appropriate misexpression of Br during adult differentiation results in pupal cuticle formation in both the head and thorax, showing that Br retains its pupal-specifying function in these regions. Hence, the refractoriness to JH of the head and thorax must be due to a lesion in the pathway from the JH receptor to Br re-induction, possibly to the loss of the receptor itself (Zhou, 2002).
In all insects including Drosophila, JH is present during the larval molts, then declines during the last larval instar. In both Manduca and Drosophila epidermis and imaginal discs, Br is not expressed during the larval molt. Pupal commitment of the polymorphic epidermis of Manduca by 20E at the end of the larval feeding period is correlated with the appearance of Br, and both can be prevented by JH. By contrast, in Manduca wing imaginal discs, Br appears earlier in the final larval instar as the discs become competent to metamorphose, and JH cannot prevent this appearance but only delays it. In Drosophila and the higher flies, the pupa is derived from imaginal discs except for the abdominal cuticle that is produced by the persisting larval epidermal cells and the histoblasts. Although the effect of JH on the appearance of Br in Drosophila discs and larval epidermis has not been directly studied, dietary JH throughout larval life delays the onset of metamorphosis but does not prevent pupation, indicating that these tissues can turn on Br despite the presence of JH. Thus, the derivation of the Drosophila pupa from primarily imaginal discs probably accounts for the inability of JH to prevent the larval-pupal transformation, although the lack of effect of JH on the abdominal epidermis in its switch to pupal cuticle production remains unexplained. The mechanism whereby JH prevents the switching-on of Br by ecdysone during a larval molt and also prevents its switching-off by ecdysone at adult commitment is still unclear (Zhou, 2002).
These studies demonstrate for the first time that by the misexpression of a single transcription factor of the ecdysone cascade, the Br-Z1 isoform, one can redirect cells undergoing either larval or adult differentiation into a pupal developmental program. They also provide the first molecular basis for the 'status quo' action of JH on the pupal-adult transformation, by showing that JH causes the re-induction of Br expression and consequently re-expression of the pupal program during the molt (Zhou, 2002).
Ashburner, M. (1989). Drosophila: A laboratory handbook. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview NY.
Fristrom, D. and Fristrom, J.W. (1993). The metamorphic development of the adult epidermis. In: The Development of Drosophila melanogaster. pp 843-897. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview NY.
Hartenstein, V. (1993). Atlas of Drosophila development. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, NY.
Zhou, X. and Riddiford, L. M. (2002). Broad specifies pupal development and mediates the 'status quo' action of juvenile hormone on the pupal-adult transformation in Drosophila and Manduca. Development 129: 2259-2269. Medline abstract: 11959833